Introduction
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'Hitler will send no warning - so always carry your gas mask' was the slogan from a campaign by the British Government to remind people to be ready for a gas attack. But what was meant exactly by 'your gas mask?' Did it mean that the mask was the personal property of the individual, or did it still belong to the Government, who had produced it and issued it free of charge?
Anyone who has seen a British child's 'Mickey Mouse' respirator box will be familiar with the statement below printed on the lid:
THIS SPECIAL RESPIRATOR FOR A SMALL CHILD IS GOVERNMENT PROPERTY. ANY PERSON WHO HAS IT IN HIS POSSESSION IS RESPONSIBLE IN LAW FOR USING CARE TO KEEP IT IN GOOD CONDITION....
However, the fact that the Government owned all respirators issued to its civilian population was not always so clear; in fact it had to go to the trouble of retrospectively introducing legislation to be able to assert this.
So why was this necessary, and what was the British Government's policy on supplying its civilians with a respirator? This cannot be answered simply by looking directly at what was happening in 1939; we need to go back a further 20 years to the First World War to find the roots of the British policy.
The issue of protection arises
The first contact that British civilians had with respirators was in the period following the use of chlorine by the German Army at Ypres on 22 April 1915. On the 28th of that month the Daily Mail newspaper issued a plea for the women of England to make 1,000,000 small cotton pad respirators to be sent to the frontline troops. Unfortunately, these pads were found to offer little or no protection at all, and so on May 5th, 1915, orders were given that the several thousands that had been issued to troops were not to be used, and were to be recalled. [1]
At this point, the design, supply and issue of respirators for the British civilian population does not seem to have been widely discussed in official circles, probably as the main threat from gas was still many miles away on the battlefields of France and Belgium and the protection of frontline troops was the immediate concern. However, the Metropolitan Police, who were already in charge of enforcing lighting restrictions in London (the city was bombed for the first time on 31 May 1915 by a Zeppelin airship) and would later take on other air raid duties, had investigated civilian respirators:
"Many enquiries have been made as to the best respirator. To this question there is no really satisfactory answer, as until the specific poison used is known an antidote cannot be indicated. There are many forms of respirator on the market for which special advantages are claimed, but the Commissioner is advised by competent experts that in all probability a pad of cotton waste contained in gauze to tie round the head and saturated with a strong solution of washing soda would be effective..." [2]
The point about the 'specific poison' is a valid one; the earliest impregnated respirators were designed to protect against chlorine, as it was the only gas used on the western front thus far. The mass-produceable respirator filter that could protect against a broad range of chemicals was yet to be developed, and the threat of new and more potent gases was always present.
The need to moisten a respirator before use would probably have posed a problem for civilians to master as well; even disciplined and trained soldiers at the front made mistakes and forgot to saturate (or over-saturated) pads with obvious results. Panic-stricken civilians who hadn't undergone proper training or did not have tender words of encouragement from a sergeant-major to remind them what to do at the critical moment would have fared much worse.
Despite these potential pitfalls, respirators for civilians were being sold in Britain. According to Professor J.B.S. Haldane, a prominent scientist involved in early British respirator development,
"Certain London pharmacists made very large sums by the sale of alleged anti-gas masks. It could be, and was, urged at the time that as the carrying of these curious objects seemed to calm the civilian population in a moment of national emergency, they served a useful purpose...They inspired such faith (for they had a better finish than the official pattern and looked like one's idea of what a gas-mask ought to be) that some thousands were sent out by fond relatives to soldiers at the front, a number of whom in consequence perished miserably." [3]
Useful or not as a placebo, such respirators would not have been so reassuring to their owners should they have had to use them for real. However, these dubious devices probably did serve a useful purpose, but not for their calming effect on the population. It was the part they played in determining future British respirator policy that was important; the potential for disaster brought about by ineffective masks was such that a government that failed to regulate respirators would be seen to have failed in its duty should civilian gas casualties occur in large numbers.
The Household Respirator
It was during 1917 that the British Government first seriously entertained the idea of providing civilians with anti-gas respirators. After two heavy raids by German Gotha bombers on London in June and July 1917, killing 216 people and injuring over 600, [4] the Admiralty, the Anti-Gas Committee and various Home Office and Local Government representatives met to discuss what, if anything, should be done about protecting civilians against the possible use of gas bombs. The conference decided that:
"Individual protection against...high concentrations [of gas] could only be satisfactorily assured by a comparatively elaborate apparatus such as it would be quite impossible to make available for general issue to the public...It was recommended that...further instructions...be issued to the public, which should also include a caution against trusting to respirators which may be offered for sale by traders..." [5]
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Despite this statement, the Anti-Gas Committee did design a 'Household Respirator' [6] (illustrated right) consisting of a cigarette tin or ordinary tin can filled with granules, with a tube to act as a mouthpiece and a clothes peg or similar device to pinch the nose shut. Originally intended for the householder to make from materials readily available at home, it was finally decided that the respirator might be too complex for an ordinary person to make. For example, careful measuring and mixing of slaked lime, Portland cement and water was required to produce the granules. The Government's solution to this was to give the specification to any manufacturer wishing to sell respirators, but the Secretary of State did not want a description of the respirator printed in the 'further instructions' mentioned above, to avoid giving information away to the enemy. [7]
Issue of the instructions, entitled 'Air Raid Precautions. Summary of Official Recommendations Issued for the Guidance of the Public' began in September/October 1917, and contained the following warning:
"It is better to avoid going near the place where any bomb has fallen than to trust to respirators. If, however, you desire to keep a respirator available for use in case it should be necessary to enter a room where there may be noxious fumes, make sure that the respirator is guaranteed by the maker to comply in all essential points with War Office specification. Do not on any account rely on a respirator offered for sale unless it is accompanied by such a guarantee." [8]
How many manufacturers actually sold respirators and how many were bought is not recorded, but the last serious raid on Britain was in May, 1918, and a collective sigh of relief was probably breathed when the war ended that November without the use of gas against British civilians.
New Preparations for War
With the fear of gas attacks against cities by aircraft, and the wider establishment of civil defence organisations across Europe during the 1920's and 30's, the problem of how to protect civilians surfaced once again. The threat from increasingly larger aircraft with longer ranges and heavier payloads meant that the 1917 arrangements for civilian respirators (i.e., private manufacture of 'home-made' respirators to War Office specification) might be inadequate. Interestingly, though, the 1917 Household Respirator and other improvised designs were under consideration in 1929. [9]
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In Britain, the left wing were responsible for various publications that, if they didn't criticise Government defensive preparations as being likely to cause the next war, criticised Government preparations as being insufficient for the next war:
"The question that immediately arises is Mask Supplies. Close upon 40 million masks would be required - the cost at 25/- [25 shillings] a piece would mean £50 million. As far as is known, no such supply is in existence or being prepared, and to make 40 million masks on known speedy output figures of the war, would take 900 days or nearly three years." [10]
The British Government was therefore left with a decision to make early on concerning how to regulate a supply of civilian respirators and who should pay for them. It was concluded that in the event of war, a large proportion of the population would look to the Government to provide for them. Respirators could be produced by the state and then sold, but the question was asked as to whether everyone would have the financial means or even the inclination to pay for a respirator during peacetime. The conclusion was that this was unlikely, so in October 1935, and possibly with the fear of ineffective respirators being widely circulated, it was decided that the nation would have to foot the bill. [11]
Many European countries simply specified standards for manufacturers to meet, in order to have permission to sell their respirators to civilians. However, this often had the effect of not ensuring that sufficient numbers were available, with the inevitable problem of demand outstripping supply if an emergency arose. German chemist and author Curt Wachtel wrote: "I was not a bit astonished, when friends wrote me from Paris [during the Munich Crisis of 1938]...that it was impossible for them to buy a gas mask at any price in all Paris." [12]
The British method had the advantage of ensuring that respirator standards and design could be controlled, although a Certification Mark Scheme was established for other designs privately manufactured that were permitted to be sold to the public as being proof against war gases. This scheme was possibly a concession to a free market economy; the Government's supply of respirators free of charge to everybody would all but quash the domestic market and deprive established manufacturers of potential sales. However, several manufacturers who applied for a licence under the scheme seem to have been involved in Government contracts to make respirators and/or components. Respirators submitted to the scheme underwent stringent tests before being accepted, the manufacturer being required by law to prominently display the special certification mark on the main components of the respirator. Most designs submitted to the scheme were identical to the Government patterns. [13]
Issue of civilian respirators
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Porton Down produced a suitable design known as the General Civilian Respirator (right), and manufacture began in 1936. [14] In order to preserve the stocks of respirators for use in wartime, it was decided to put them into storage, ready for issue when the time came. Originally stored in sealed tins containing nitrogen, issue began during the Munich crisis of September 1938, when 35 million masks were distributed to the public. Once the crisis passed, the Government decided to allow the public to retain their masks for a trial period of six months, with regular inspections by wardens to ensure they were still serviceable. [15]
However, respirators were not at this time the primary civilian defence against gas; since 1935 the Government had been advocating the preparation of a 'refuge room' in every house. The room was to be made gas-proof by sealing up windows and doors and any other cracks or holes through which gas could pass. The only Government part in this first line of defence was advice on how to gas-proof a room. Publications such as The Protection of Your Home Against Air Raids made clear that the Government was still relying on the public making their own 'respirator' in the form of a gas-proof room: "...regard your respirator as your second line of defence and the precautions advised in this book as your first." [16] (Original emphasis). It was not until about 1939 and the entire nation was in possession of a respirator, that the gas-proof room became the second line of defence. [17]
Ownership Questioned
However, did civilian respirators still belong to the Government, or were they now the personal property of the householder to whom they had been supplied? The question of legal ownership was brought to public attention in December 1938 when the Director-General of Air Raid Precautions, Wing-Commander Hodsoll, was questioned on the subject, as it seemed that a number of masks were being openly sold at market:
"That is something that is troubling us a great deal. A short time ago someone threw his mask in the fire in a fit of pique. The possibility of a prosecution was raised, but we were told that it was very doubtful who is the legal owner. I am told that there is quite a trade in gas masks to American tourists, who want to take them about as souvenirs of the [Munich] crisis." [18]
The Air Raid Precautions Act 1937 had stated that the Secretary of State was empowered to make regulations to provide "as to loans, gifts, and sales of such equipment, appliances, or material." [19] So were the respirators gifts or were people illegally selling or damaging government property that they had been entrusted with? Three days after the initial question was asked, the Times newspaper reported on what was believed to be the first attempt to prosecute a member of the public for failing to keep his gas mask in serviceable condition. The defendant had been seen to throw his respirator into a yard, causing it irreparable damage. He had also been warned by the police on a previous occasion about the window of his mask, which was cracked.
As far as the Crown was concerned, Government property had been wilfully damaged. However, the judge temporarily adjourned the case until the prosecuting Chief Constable was able to establish who legally owned the respirator. [20] Unfortunately for the Government, the Home Office booklet The Protection of Your Home Against Air Raids had said that "The government is making arrangements to provide respirators free to the civilian population in all districts where they might be needed." [21] It is also interesting to note that A.R.P. Handbook No.1, Personal Protection Against Gas (which was seemingly not mentioned throughout the case) said "When the respirator is issued...it will then become the personal property of that person and it will be his or her duty to become familiar with the proper method of wearing and taking care of it." [22] (My emphasis).
According to the Times, the Home Office informed the Chief Constable that "in the circumstances it was felt it would be very difficult and conceivably impossible to sustain in court that the respirator was not the property of the man charged with damaging it." [23] The judge summed up the situation: "What it amounts to is, that if a civilian destroys the respirator with which he has been supplied he does it at his own risk, and he will not be supplied with another one free." [24] A legal precedent had been set, making it virtually impossible for the Government to claim ownership of civilian respirators once they had been issued.
The Crown was left to withdraw the prosecution and lick its wounds. After being asked "whether his attention had been called to specific instances of the wanton destruction of gas masks issued at the public expense, and whether any steps had been taken to punish those responsible" [25], Home Secretary Sir John Anderson announced that the issue of ownership would be resolved by the introduction of a forthcoming Act of Parliament.
New Legislation
Anderson's response was made on July 13th, 1939, with the entry into force of the Civil Defence Act 1939. In a classic case of moving the goalposts, Section 67 of the new act repealed the word "gifts" from the Air Raid Precautions Act 1937 clause quoted above, and went further to ensure that there was no doubt as to who really owned the gas masks:
"The property in any equipment, appliances or material provided on behalf of His Majesty under the [Air Raid Precautions] Act of 1937 free of charge shall remain in His Majesty....Any person who, being in possession of any such equipment, appliances or material...fails to use reasonable care for the preservation thereof shall, without prejudice to any other liability, be liable on summary conviction to a fine not exceeding five pounds....This section shall be deemed to have had effect as from the commencement of the Act of 1937." [26]
To summarise, the 1939 Act now made any civil defence equipment that had been issued by the Government free of charge, Government property by law. This clause was backdated to 1937, so every single respirator was included, not just those issued after the 1939 Act came into power. A fine of up to £5 could now be imposed upon anyone found guilty of not taking proper care of the Government's gas mask whilst it was in their care. (See Appendix 1). Although this seems to be cheating, it was a necessary step for the Government to take; if gas masks were allowed to belong to the public, failing to maintain them could not be legally enforced, and the entire scheme to protect the public by issuing respirators could be undermined as a result.
It is also interesting to note that although everyone over the age of about 5 years had been issued with a standard civilian respirator by mid-September, 1939, the issuing of the Small Childs' Respirator (the 'Mickey Mouse') and Baby Helmet and had not yet begun, as manufacture had been delayed whilst the design and specifications were finalised. [27] This enabled a declaration of Government ownership of the appliance to be marked on these devices to remind the user that they were to be looked after. The basic declaration (slight variations exist according to appliance) was as follows:
THIS APPLIANCE IS GOVERNMENT PROPERTY. ANY PERSON WHO HAS IT IN HIS POSSESSION IS RESPONSIBLE IN LAW FOR USING CARE TO KEEP IT IN GOOD CONDITION. IT IS TO BE RETURNED TO THE LOCAL AUTHORITY IN WHOSE AREA THE POSSESSOR MAY BE AT ANY TIME, EITHER ON REQUEST OR WHEN NO LONGER REQUIRED.
The Helmet Respirator and Hospital Respirator were also marked with the disclaimer, but curiously the General Civilian Respirator does not appear to have been marked at all.
In order to ensure people were still looking after their respirators, the Government introduced in March 1940 a monthly inspection routine by Air Raid Wardens, and repair and replacement charges on top of the maximum £5 fine for anyone found guilty of neglecting to take care of their gas mask. [28] The Government was keen to assert that it had done its part by issuing respirators, and it was now the citizen's duty to prevent damage to them:
"The reason for these charges,...is that, now that the public has once been equipped with respirators...the Government's original undertaking to supply them has been discharged...the public may be made to realise that damage to or loss of a respirator is a serious matter because of the waste of national effort entailed in the replacement." [29]
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Here the Government was reinforcing its ownership of respirators; it had considered the issue of them as its duty, and to allow them to fall into disrepair would negate the purpose of their issue, creating a situation of people feeling safe in the knowledge that they had a respirator, but unaware that it may turn out to be useless. This was the very situation the Government wanted to avoid, and the introduction of charges shows commitment to preventing the humble gas mask becoming a placebo as had been the case during the First World War with the sale of non-regulation masks.
Fears of the imminent use of gas by the Germans arose several times during the war. In July, 1940, Prime Minister Winston Churchill wrote: "It seems to me very important that everybody should be made to look to their gas-masks now. I expect a great many of them require overhauling..." [30] Possibly due to the belief that chemical warfare might ensue during the forthcoming Allied invasion of occupied Europe, in early 1944 an amnesty for damaged respirators was held:
"...during January and February the charges for the repair of respirators shall be suspended, as a further step towards ensuring that those in the hands of the public are being maintained in efficient condition...any member of the public who takes a damaged respirator to his particular depot can get it either repaired or replaced without any payment...Free replacement will not be available for anyone who does not produce a damaged respirator for exchange." [31]
The War Ends
Having gone to all the time, trouble and expense of manufacturing and issuing civilian respirators, what was to happen once the war was over? The issue of new and replacement masks was halted by the Government at the end of April 1945, the public being instructed to continue looking after their respirators until further notice was given in how to dispose of them. [32] Several letters from angry citizens who wanted to hand in their masks so that the rubber could be reclaimed and used for essential things such as hot water bottles and tyres were printed in The Times [33] - after all, the disclaimer did state that appliances were to be handed back "when no longer required."
Faced with the fact that to collect many millions of respirators from the public and to store them would be an enormous task requiring time, manpower and further expense, the Home Secretary decided that just the more expensive types, i.e. the baby helmet, helmet respirator, hospital respirator and the child's Mickey Mouse were to be collected and put into storage and leave the General Civilian respirator in circulation:
"The Government have decided to continue to entrust ordinary civilian respirators to the custody of the public, and to repeat the appeal that the public will take proper care of them lest these respirators should ever be needed again. Properly looked after, the masks will be serviceable for some years longer, and, in conjunction with the very substantial quantities still unissued, which are held in specially designed stores, they should provide an adequate reserve for the country until the time comes to review the question afresh. [34]
However, having been bombarded with constant instructions about looking after and carrying their gas masks, with the war over many people simply wanted to destroy them or use them for other things such as hanging flower pots. [35] (Although the Civil Defence (Suspension of Powers) Act 1945 suspended certain elements of the previous acts, Section 67 of the 1939 Act (quoted above) remained in force.) [36]
Conclusion
Concerned about the unregulated supply of civilian respirators during the First World War, the British Government set out to prevent the same situation from occurring in any future conflict. It did this by footing the bill for respirators for its entire population and issuing them free of charge, the majority of them before the next war broke out. To ensure that the masks were properly maintained, legislation was introduced to prevent them from becoming non-functional placebos.
It is no coincidence, therefore, that Britain was the only country during the Second World War to have provided every single member of its civilian population with a respirator, and this must be attributed to the British Government's strict control and ownership of respirators. In Germany, the individual had to pay for his own gas mask, and the Germans were unable to produce them in sufficient numbers once war broke out. The fact that Britain had achieved a full issue of masks, and Germany had not, probably played a part in preventing the use of gas during the war:
"The Germans did not use gas during the 1939-1945 war, but...it is fair to assume that the knowledge that the population of this country all possessed efficient respirators and were trained in their use...was an important deterrent." [37]
If this was the effect on the Germans, what was the effect on the British people? Had the Government in reality produced a 'placebo' respirator such as it was trying to avoid? Apparently so: "...there appears to be good evidence for concluding that the Government's early investment in this sphere contributed powerfully to sustaining morale..." [38] Therefore, the respirator provided a feeling of security in the knowledge that the man in the street had protection, and that he and his Government were prepared. And it was a placebo - a great many people disregarded Government advice and stopped carrying their respirators wherever they went and did allow them to become lost or damaged. However, the control of standards and legal enforcement of careful maintenence provided the means to ensure that if the need ever arose, for the majority of people, the placebo would also prove to be the geniune article. This was because when the Government said "always carry your gas mask" it actually meant "always carry the Government's gas mask."
Appendix 1 - The cost of losing or damaging
a respirator
Table 1 - Charges for losing or damaging a respirator |
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| Adult Civilian Respirator | S/d (1940) |
GB£ (2001) |
Baby's Anti-Gas Helmet | S/d (1940) |
GB£ (2001) |
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| Loss of a complete respirator | 2/6 | £4.84 | Loss of a complete helmet (including carton) | 21/0 | 40.66 | |||
| Loss or damage to: | Loss or damage to: | |||||||
| Facepiece | 1/6 | 2.90 | Main frame (without tail-piece) | 3/6 | 6.78 | |||
| Container | 1/0 | 1.94 | Adjustable tail-piece on frame | 2/0 | 3.87 | |||
| Carton | 0/2 | .32 | Supporting strap with straps for attachment to frame | 2/0 | 3.87 | |||
| Enveloping bag | 10/0 | 19.36 | ||||||
| Draw tape on bag | 0/3 | .48 | ||||||
| Child's Respirator | Bellows | 1/3 | 2.42 | |||||
| Loss of a complete respirator | 3/6 | 6.78 | Elbow connector | 0/9 | 1.45 | |||
| Loss or damage to: | Valve unit (inside elbow) | 0/9 | 1.45 | |||||
| Facepiece | 2/6 | 4.84 | Container | 1/0 | 1.94 | |||
| Container | 1/0 | 1.94 | Strap for securing the air unit to frame | 0/3 | .48 | |||
| Carton | 0/2 | .32 | Carton | 0/6 | .97 | |||
Notes on Table 1
- Charges for the loss or damage to respirators are as given in a Home Security Circular of March 1940. [39]
- The Helmet Respirator and Hospital Respirator had not been issued at this point, and so are not listed.
- The figures given in 2001 prices (purchasing power), were calculated using 'How Much is That' available from Economic History Resources at: www.eh.net/ehresources/howmuch/poundq.php accessed 21 June 2002.
Appendix 2 - The Total Cost
So just how much did supplying respirators for the civilian population free of charge cost the British Government? The following table gives an indication of the figures involved:
Table 2 - Production & Cost of British Civilian Respirators 1936-45 |
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| Respirator Type | Numbers Produced | Unit Cost | Overall Cost (2001) |
| General Civilian | 97 million | £0 2s 11 | £538,350,000 |
| Small Child's | 3 million | £0 4s 6 | £23,820,000 |
| Baby Helmet | 2 million | £0 24s 0 | £84,660,000 |
| Invalid Helmet | 50 thousand | £0 20s 0 | £1,674,500 |
| Hospital Respirator | 36 thousand | £0 23s 6 | £1,164,240 |
| Civilian Duty | 4.5 million | £0 8s 3 | £68,085,000 |
| Total: | 106,586,000 | £717,753,740 | |
Notes on Table 2
- Production figures and unit costs are taken from Trotman. (See References)
- Due to the complexity of the British Imperial pounds/shillings/pence money system, I have avoided reproducing the full calculation.
- The Overall Cost column gives the totals based on an average price of each unit over the years it was in production. The figures are given in 2001 prices (purchasing power), calculated using 'How Much is That' available from Economic History Resources at: www.eh.net/ehresources/howmuch/poundq.php accessed 21 June 2002.
Footnote References
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